The Islamic Doctrine of Takfīr (Excommunication): Tracing its Historical Development in the Thought of Ibn Ḥanbal, Ibn Taymiyya, and Muḥammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb

This article traces the long-term historical development of Islamic doctrine on takfīr (excommunication, declaring a self-professed Muslim to be a disbeliever). I focus on a line of influential scholars associated with the ahl al-ḥadīth and the Ḥanbalī school—Ibn Ḥanbal (d. 241/855), Ibn Taymiyya (d. 728/1328), and Muḥammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb (d. 1206/1792)—and examine how these scholars view takfīr in relation to three key topics: non-application of the sharīʿa, denial of Allah’s attributes (ṣifāt), and shirk (taking a being other than Allah as a god). In addition, I document the scholars’ varying approach to the "excuse for ignorance" (al-ʿudhr bi’l jahl) that prevents takfīr for individuals who lack knowledge of relevant Islamic teachings and examine the role of historical events and politics in shaping the development of the takfīr doctrine, with the focus of scholars’ attention shifting according to the circumstances confronting them.