​​GIS-based AHP multi-criteria mapping of potential solar PV power plant development: a case study in the vicinity of Holy Sites, Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030 includes a “Green Hajj” initiative to reduce the environmental impact of the annual pilgrimage. This study identifies optimal locations for large-scale solar PV plants near Meena, Muzdalifah, and Arafat in Makkah using GIS-based Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) and the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). Key criteria assessed were solar irradiance, PV output, terrain, infrastructure proximity, and land use. The analysis categorized land suitability into five levels: 10.38% of the area (mainly northeast) is most suitable for PV with an estimated output of 1830 kWh/kWp/year; highly suitable zones comprise 10.87%, moderately suitable 23.58%, low suitability 26.02%, and 29.15% is unsuitable due to challenging terrain or proximity to protected areas. The most- and highly suitable categories could produce 6.75 GW of electricity; just 10% (675 MW) would meet Hajj’s peak demand of 500–600 MW. This approach offers a robust method for sustainable energy planning in sensitive, high-demand regions.