Comprehensive insights into agro-industrial waste-derived bacterial cellulose advancing green technologies across industries

Bacterial cellulose (BC) is a high-performance bio-derived material with growing relevance to circular manufacturing in environmental remediation, biodegradable, compostable packaging, biomedical scaffolds, and wearable/flexible electronics. Unlike petroleum plastics and even many plant-cellulose derivatives, BC is secreted as an ultra-pure (>99 %) nanoscale fibrillar network of 20–100 nm size with high crystallinity, tensile strength on the order of 200–400 MPa, tunable porosity, and intrinsic biocompatibility. This review consolidates advances in: (i) CRISPR/base-editing and programmable promoter engineering to boost yield and embed functionality in situ; (ii) intensified and hybrid reactor concepts that overcome oxygen-transfer and shear limitations; and (iii) AI-/ML-guided fermentation control, which is already demonstrating 20–25 % cost reduction through optimized media, pH control, and aeration. A central theme is the use of agro-industrial residues like fruit peels, whey, distillery/winery effluent, bagasse as carbon sources to displace refined sugars, reduce waste management burdens, and close material loops within a circular biorefinery model. We critically evaluate BC composite systems (e.g., MXene/BC electrodes, antimicrobial wound dressings, high-barrier bioplastic films) and identify barriers to scale, including inhibitor carryover from waste feedstocks, fouling, water-vapor transmission rate, phenolic coloration, and clinical regulatory constraints. Finally, we propose a translational roadmap built on data-rich bioreactors, modular waste-to-value integration, and application-specific surface functionalization to accelerate industrial deployment of BC as a next-generation sustainable material.