Breaking the PFAS treatment barrier: Scalable solutions for industrial wastewater treatment

The industrial discharge of per - and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) poses one of the most pressing and persistent challenges in modern water treatment due to their high thermal and chemical persistence. Conventional technologies, including adsorption, ion exchange, and membrane filtration, often fail to achieve complete PFAS removal or destruction, particularly in complex industrial effluents. Advanced treatment technologies, including ball milling, high-temperature thermal processes, and chemical processes, demonstrate superior degradation potential; however, their application at wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) scale is constrained by high energy demand, operational costs, and limited pilot-scale validation. To bridge this gap, hybrid systems that integrate separation with destructive technologies have emerged as a promising pathway toward scalable PFAS remediation. This review systematically evaluates conventional, advanced, and hybrid systems, comparing their mechanisms, performance metrics, treatment efficiencies, technology readiness levels (TRLs), and economic and operational constraints. By mapping these technologies against real-world WWTP requirements, the review provides evidence-based recommendations on the most suitable hybrid configurations for industrial adoption and outlines critical research and engineering needs to enable practical, cost-effective, and regulatory-aligned PFAS management in WWTPs.