A sustainable approach for enhanced photocatalytic degradation of dyes/drugs using Neolamarckia cadamba-mediated TiO₂–rGO NCs

In the present study, we reported the green synthesis of titanium dioxide–reduced graphene oxide nanocomposites (TiO₂–rGO NCs) using fruit extract of Neolamarckia cadamba as a bioreductant. The extract simultaneously reduces titanium precursors and graphene oxide, yielding a multifunctional photocatalyst. Comprehensive characterization via spectroscopic and microscopic techniques was performed to analyze the nanocomposite's elemental composition, chemical states, morphology, particle size distribution, and porosity. Photocatalytic performance was evaluated under visible-light irradiation, demonstrating efficient and sustainable degradation of the organic dyes Eriochrome Black T (EBT, ∼93.41%), Indigo Carmine (IC, ∼89.6%), and Rhodamine B (RhB, ∼91.1%). Furthermore, the TiO₂–rGO NCs exhibited notable degradation efficiencies toward pharmaceutical drugs, including ciprofloxacin (CIP, ∼91.86%), ibuprofen (IBU, ∼85.8%), and tetracycline hydrochloride (THC, ∼90.6%), under visible light irradiation. These results highlight the potential of biosynthesized TiO₂–rGO NCs as highly effective, sustainable materials for wastewater remediation and environmental protection.